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Flaxseed
 
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Flaxseed

Linseed; Linum usitatissimum

Flaxseed, or linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), comes from the flax plant, which is an annual herb. The ancient Egyptians used flaxseed as both food and medicine. In the past, flaxseed was used mostly as a laxative. It is high in fiber and contains a gummy material called mucilage, both of which expand when they come in contact with water. They add bulk to stool and help it move more quickly through the intestines.

Flaxseed and flaxseed oil are rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid that may be helpful for heart disease, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), arthritis, and other health problems. Other omega-3 fatty acids include those found in fish oil, which are docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Mackerel, salmon, and walnuts are good sources of omega-3 fatty acids.

Flaxseed oil contains only ALA, not the fiber or lignans found in the flaxseed. Other plants that contain ALA include canola (rapeseed), soybean oil, walnuts, and pumpkin seed. Studies suggest that flaxseed may help prevent and treat of the following health conditions.

High cholesterol

People who eat a Mediterranean diet tend to have higher HDL (good) cholesterol levels. The Mediterranean diet includes whole grains, root and green vegetables, fruits, fish and poultry, olive and canola oils, and ALA from flaxseed, flaxseed oil, and walnuts. It limits the amount of red meat, butter, and cream you eat.

In lab tests and animal studies, flaxseed and flaxseed oil have been reported to lower cholesterol. Human studies show mixed results. One human study found that people who added flaxseed to a low-cholesterol diet lowered their LDL (bad) cholesterol and triglyceride levels (fats in the blood).

Heart disease

A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts or legumes, and foods with ALA may reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke, both for people who have never had either problem and for those who have already had a heart attack or a stroke.

One of the best ways to help prevent and treat heart disease is to eat a diet low in saturated fat and trans fat, and eat foods that are rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, including omega-3 fatty acids from flaxseed. Evidence suggests that people who eat an ALA-rich diet are less likely to have a fatal heart attack.

Several human studies suggest that a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids (including ALA) may lower blood pressure in people with hypertension.

Menopausal symptoms

One small study compared flaxseed to hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in menopausal women. It reported that 40 g of flaxseed worked as well as HRT for mild menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, mood disturbances, and vaginal dryness). But the study was not well designed, and another, larger study found that flaxseed did not improve symptoms like hot flashes, nor did it protect against bone loss.

Breast cancer

Flaxseed contains phytoestrogens, which are plant chemicals called lignans. Because lignans may act like estrogen in the body, scientists aren't sure whether flaxseed would be harmful or helpful for breast cancer. Studies have reported that flaxseed reduced breast tumor growth and metastasis (spreading) in rats.

There has been only one clinical study in humans. In that study, postmenopausal women who were newly diagnosed with breast cancer ate a muffin with 25 grams dietary flaxseed every day for 40 days. The study found that adding flaxseed to the diet may have the potential to reduce tumor growth in women with breast cancer. More research is needed.

Colon cancer

Animal studies show that lignans may slow the growth of colon tumor cells. Population studies suggest that flaxseed may reduce the number of abnormal cell growths, which are early markers of colon cancer. Clinical trials in people are needed, however.

Prostate cancer

Results from studies are confusing when it comes to prostate cancer and flaxseed. A few studies seemed to show that ALA intake was associated with an increased risk for prostate cancer. But other studies have found that flaxseed may benefit men at risk for prostate cancer. In one study, men with a precancerous prostate condition called PIN had lower PSA levels (a marker of prostate cancer) when they ate 30 g of flaxseed daily along with a low-fat diet. In men who had prostate cancer, 30 g of flaxseed daily and a low-fat diet did not lower PSA levels. But it did appear to lower levels of testosterone and slow down the rate of tissue growth. More studies are needed to understand how flaxseed may affect prostate cancer.

Other uses

Researchers are investigating whether omega-3 fatty acids may help protect against certain infections and in treating conditions including ulcers, migraine headaches, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), addiction, eating disorders, preterm labor, emphysema, psoriasis, glaucoma, Lyme disease, lupus, and panic attacks.

Plant Description

Flax is an annual plant that thrives in deep moist soils rich in sand, silt, and clay. The small, oval-shaped seeds of the flax plant contain oil, sometimes called linseed oil.

What is it Made of?

Flaxseed has several plant chemicals that may be healthy, including:

  • Fiber, both soluble and insoluble
  • Protein
  • Essential fatty acids (ALA)
  • Lignans

Flaxseed acts like a laxative because of its fiber and mucilage content.

The health benefits of flaxseed, such as protection from heart disease and arthritis, are probably due to a high concentration of the omega-3 fatty acid ALA.

In addition to the important omega-3 fatty acid ALA, flaxseed, NOT the oil, also contains phytoestrogens, which are plant chemicals called lignans. Phytoestrogens act like the hormone estrogen and may help protect against some kinds of cancer.

Available Forms

Flaxseed oil should be refrigerated. Use whole flaxseeds within 24 hours of grinding, otherwise the ingredients lose their activity. Flaxseeds are also available ground in a special mylar package so that the components in the flaxseeds stay active. Ripe seeds, linseed cakes, powder, capsules, and flaxseed oil are all available at health food and grocery stores.

How to Take it

Pediatric

Flaxseed oil may be added to a child's diet to help balance fatty acids.

Children (2 to 12 years old): Ask your doctor to help you determine the right dose.

Adult

Grind before eating and take with lots of water.

Precautions

The use of herbs is a time-honored approach to strengthening the body and treating disease. Herbs, however, can have side effects, and interact with other herbs, supplements, or medications. For these reasons, you should take herbs with care, under the supervision of a health care provider qualified in the field of botanical medicine.

Although studies have found that eating fish, which includes omega-3 fatty acids, regularly may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, a recent study of two large groups of men and women found that diets rich in ALA may increase the risk of macular degeneration. Talk to your health care provider.

DO NOT eat raw or unripe flaxseeds, they may be poisonous.

Women with breast, uterine, and ovarian cancer or endometriosis should ask their doctor before taking flaxseed, because it may act like estrogen in the body.

Some researchers think pregnant women should not take flaxseed, because it may act like estrogen in the body. Ask your doctor before taking flaxseed if you are pregnant or breastfeeding.

Men with prostate cancer should ask their doctor before taking flaxseed.

People with a bowel obstruction, inflamed bowel, or narrowed esophagus should not take flaxseed. It is high in fiber and could make the condition worse.

If you take ground flaxseed, be sure to take it with a lot of water.

Possible Interactions

Flaxseed supplements may alter the effects of some prescription and nonprescription medications. If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use flaxseed without first talking to your doctor.

Blood-thinning medications: Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, especially if you also take blood thinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin), clopidogrel (Plavix), or aspirin. In some cases, the combination of aspirin and omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful. But they should not be taken together except under a doctor's supervision.

Medications for diabetes: Flaxseed may lower blood sugar levels. If you are taking medicines for diabetes, including insulin, you should use flaxseed (ALA) only under your doctor's supervision.

Birth control pills or hormonal replacement therapy (HRT): Flaxseed may change hormone levels and change the effects of oral contraceptives or HRT. If you are taking an oral contraceptive or HRT, ask your doctor before taking flaxseed.

Supporting Research

Angerer P, von Schacky C. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the cardiovascular system. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2000;11(1):57-63.

Arnold LE, Kleykamp D, Votolato N, Gibson RA, Horrocks L. Potential link between dietary intake of fatty acid and behavior: pilot exploration of serum lipids in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1994;4(3):171-182.

Boelsma E, Hendriks HF. Roza L. Nutritional skin care: health effects of micronutrients and fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73(5):853-864.

Bommareddy A, Arasada BL, Mathees DP, Dwivedi C. Chemopreventive effects of dietary flaxseed on colon tumor development. Nutr Cancer. 2006;54(2):216-22.

Bruinsma KA, Taren DL. Dieting, essential fatty acid intake, and depression. Nutrition Rev. 2000;58(4):98-108.

Caligiuri SP, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Guzman R, Dibrov E, Pierce GN. Flaxseed consumption reduces blood pressure in patients with hypertension by altering circulating oxylipins via an a-linolenic acid-induced inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase. Hypertension. 2014;64(1):53-9.

Caron MF, White CM. Evaluation of the antihyperlipidemic properties of dietary supplements. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21(4):481-487.

Cellini M, Caramazzu N, Mangiafico P, Possati GL, Caramazza R. Fatty acid use in glaucomatous optic neuropathy treatment. Acta Ophthalmol Scand Suppl. 1998;227:41-42.

Cho E, Hung S, Willet WC, Spiegelman D, Rimm EB, Seddon JM, et al. Prospective study of dietary fat and the risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73(2):209-218.

Clark WF, Kortas C, Heidenheim AP, Garland J, Spanner E, Parbtani A. Flaxseed in lupus nephritis: a two–year nonplacebo-controlled crossover study. J Am Coll Nutr. 2001;20(2 Suppl):143-148.

Curtis CL, Hughes CE, Flannery CR, Little CB, Harwood JL, Caterson B. N-3 fatty acids specifically modulate catabolic factors involved in articular cartilage degradation. J Biol Chem. 2000;275(2):721-724.

Dahl WJ, Lockert EA, Cammer AL, Whiting SJ. Effects of flax fiber on laxation and glycemic response in healthy volunteers. J Med Food. 2005;8(4):508-11.

de Logeril M, Salen P, Martin JL, Monjaud I, Delaye J, Mamelle N. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction: final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99(6):779-785.

Demark-Wahnefried W, Price DT, Polascik TJ, et al. Pilot study of dietary fat restriction and flaxseed supplementation in men with prostate cancer before surgery: exploring the effects on hormonal levels, prostate-specific antigen, and histopathologic features. Urology. 2001;58(1):47-52.

Deutch B. Menstrual pain in Danish women correlated with low n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1995;49(7):508-516.

Dew TP, Williamson G. Controlled flax interventions for the improvement of menopausal symptoms and postmenopausal bone health: a systematic review. Menopause. 2013;20(11):1207-15.

Dodin S et al. Flaxseed on cardiovascular disease markers in healthy menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Nutrition. 2008;24(1):23-30.

Dodin S, Lemay A, Jacques H, Legare F, Forest JC, Masse B. The effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women: a randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(3):1390-7.

Edwards R, Peet M, Shay J, Horrobin D. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in the diet and in red blood cell membranes of depressed patients. J Affect Disord. 1998;48(2-3):149-155.

Freeman VL, Meydani M, Yong S, Pyle J, Flanigan RC, Waters WB, Wojcik EM. Prostatic levels of fatty acids and the histopathology of localized prostate cancer. J Urol. 2000;164(6):2168-2172.

Frieri G, Pimpo MT, Palombieri A, Melideo D, Marcheggiano A, Caprilli R, et al. Polyunsaturated fatty acid dietary supplementation: an adjuvant approach to treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. Nut Res. 2000;20(7):907-916.

Geerling BJ, Badart-Smook A, van Deursen C, van Houwelingen AC, Russel MG, Stockbrugger RW, et al. Nutritional supplementation with N-3 fatty acids and antioxidants in patients iwth Crohn's disease in remission: effects on antioxidant status and fatty acid profile. IBD. 2000;6(2):77-84.

GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet. 1999;354:447-455.

Griel AE, Kris-Etherton PM, Hilpert KF, Zhao G, West SG, Corwin RL. An increase in dietary n-3 fatty acids decreases a marker of bone resorption in humans. Nutr J. 2007;6(1):2 [Epub ahead of print].

Hall C 3rd, Tulbek MC, Xu Y. Flaxseed. Adv Food Nutr Res. 2006;51:1-97.

Hallund J, Tetens I, Bugel S, Tholstrup T, Ferrari M, Teerlink T, Kjaer A, Wiinberg N. Daily consumption for six weeks of a lignan complex isolated from flaxseed does not affect endothelial function in healthy postmenopausal women. J Nutr. 2006;136(9):2314-8.

Haggans CJ, Hutchins AM, Olson BA, Thomas W, Martini MC, Slavin JL. Effect of flaxseed consumption on urinary estrogen metabolites in postmenopausal women. Nutr Canc. 1999;33(2):188-195.

Harper CR, Edwards MJ, DeFilipis AP, Jacobson TA. Flaxseed oil increases the plasma concentrations of cardioprotective (n-3) fatty acids in humans. J Nutr. 2006;136(1):83-7.

Harris WS. N-3 fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: human studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;65(5):1645S (10).

Hibbeln JR, Salem N, Jr. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy. Am J Clin Nut. 1995;62(1):1-9.

Holman RT, Adams CE, Nelson RA, Grater SJ, Jaskiewicz JA, Johnson SB, et al. Patients with anorexia nervosa demonstrate deficiencies of selected essential fatty acids, compensatory changes in nonessential fatty acids and decreased fluidity of plasma lipids. J Nutr. 1995;125:901-907.

Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE et al. Dietary intake of alpha-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69:890-897.

Hutchins AM, Martini MC, Olson BA, Thomas W, Slavin JL. Flaxseed consumption influences endogenous hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. Nutr Cancer. 2001;39(1):58-65.

Jenab M, Thompson LU. The influence of flaxseed and lignans on colon carcinogenesis and ß-glucuronidase activity. Carcinogenesis. 1996;17(6):1343-1348.

Klurfeld DM, Bull AW. Fatty acids and colon cancer in experimental models. Am J Clin Nut. 1997;66(6 Suppl):1530S-1538S.

Kremer JM. N-3 fatty acid supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;(suppl 1):349S-351S.

Kris-Etherton P, Eckel RH, Howard BV, St. Jeor S, Bazzare TL. AHA Science Advisory: Lyon Diet Heart Study. Benefits of a Mediterranean-style, National Cholesterol Education Program/American Heart Association Step I Dietary Pattern on Cardiovascular Disease. Circulation. 2001;103:1823.

Kurzer MS, Xu X. Dietary phytoestrogens. Ann Rev Nutr. 1997;17:353-381.

Laugharne JD, Mellor JE, Peet M. Fatty acids and schizophrenia. Lipids. 1996;31(Suppl):S-163-165.

Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Michaud DS, Augustsson K, Colditz GC, Willett WC, Giovannucci EL. Dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80(1):204-16.

Lewis JE, Nickell LA, Thompson LU, Szalai JP, Kiss A, Hilditch JR. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of dietary soy and flaxseed muffins on quality of life and hot flashes during menopause. Menopause. 2006;13(4):631-42.

Lockwood K, Moesgaard S, Hanioka T, Folkers K. Apparent partial remission of breast cancer in 'high risk' patients supplemented with nutritional antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and coenzyme Q10. Mol Aspects Med. 1994;15Suppl:s231-s240.

Lorenz-Meyer H, Bauer P, Nicolay C, Schulz B, Purrmann J, Fleig WE, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and low carbohydrate diet for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease. A randomized controlled multicenter trial. Study Group Members (German Crohn's Disease Study Group). Scan J Gastroenterol. 1996;31(8):778-785.

Lowcock EC, Cotterchio M, Boucher BA. Consumption of flaxseed, a rich source of lignans, is associated with reduced breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control. 2013 Apr;24(4):813-6. doi: 10.1007/s10552-013-0155-7. Epub 2013 Jan 25.

Lucas EA, Wild RD, Hammond LJ, Khalil DA, Juma S, Daggy BP, Stoecker BJ, Arjmandi BH. Flaxseed improves lipid profile without altering biomarkers of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87(4):1527-32.

Mandasescu S, Mocanu V, Dascalita AM, Haliga R, Nestian I, Stitt PA, Luca V. Flaxseed supplementation in hyperlipidemic patients. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2005;109(3):502-6.

Meydani M. Omega-3 fatty acids alter soluble markers of endothelial function in coronary heart disease patients. Nutr Rev. 2000;58(2 pt 1):56-59.

Moyad M. Soy, disease prevention, and prostate cancer. Sem Urol Oncol. 1999;17(2):97-102.

Mozaffarian D. Does alpha-linolenic acid intake reduce the risk of coronary heart disease? A review of the evidence.Altern Ther Health Med. 2005;11(3):24-30; quiz 31, 79.

Newcomer LM, King IB, Wicklund KG, Stanford JL. The association of fatty acids with prostate cancer risk. Prostate. 2001;47(4):262-268.

Peet M, Laugharne JD, Mellor J, et al. Essential fatty acid deficiency in erythrocyte membranes from chronic schizophrenic patients, and the clinical effects of dietary supplementation. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1996;55(1-2):71-75.

Prasad K. Flaxseed and cardiovascular health. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2009 Nov;54(5):369-77. Review.

Prasad K. Dietary flaxseed in prevention of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 1997;132(1):69-76.

Prisco D, Paniccia R, Bandinelli B, et al. Effect of medium term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res. 1998;91:105-112.

Pruthi S et al. Pilot evaluation of flaxseed for the management of hot flashes. J Soc Integr Oncol. 2007;5(3):106-12.

Rodriguez-Leyva D, Dupasquier CM, McCullough R, Pierce GN. The cardiovascular effects of flaxseed and its omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid. Can J Cardiol. 2010 Nov;26(9):489-96. Review.

Rodriguez-Leyva D, Weighell W, Edel AL, et al. Potent antihypertensive action of dietary flaxseed in hypertnsive patients. Hypertension. 2013;62(6):1081-9.

Rose DP, Connolly JM, Coleman M. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the progression of metastases after the surgical excision of human breast cancer cell solid tumors growing in nude mice. Clin Can Res. 1996;2:1751-1756.

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Zambón D, Sabate J, Munoz S, et al. Substituting walnuts for monounsaturated fat improves the serum lipid profile of hypercholesterolemic men and women. Ann Intern Med. 2000;132:538-546.

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    Review Date: 6/22/2015  

    Reviewed By: Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network.

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